Moscow (/ˈmɒskoʊ, -kaʊ/; Russian: Москва́, tr. Moskvá, IPA: [mɐˈskva] ( listen)) is the capital and most populous city of Russia, with 13.2 million residents within the city limits[11] and 17 million within the urban area.[12] Moscow is one of Russia's three federal cities, along with St Petersburg and Sevastopol.
Moscow is a major political, economic, cultural, and scientific centre of Russia and Eastern Europe, as well as the largest city (both by population and by area) entirely on the European continent. By broader definitions Moscow is among the world's largest cities, being the 14th largest metro area, the 18th largest agglomeration, the 14th largest urban area, and the 11th largest by population within city limits worldwide. According to Forbes 2013,[13] Moscow has been ranked as the ninth most expensive city in the world by Mercer and has one of the world's largest urban economies, being ranked as an alpha global city according to the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, and is also one of the fastest growing tourist destinations in the world according to the MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index.
Moscow is the northernmost and coldest megacity and metropolis on Earth. It is home to the Ostankino Tower, the tallest free standing structure in Europe; the Federation Tower, the second-tallest skyscraper in Europe; and the Moscow International Business Center. By its territorial expansion on July 1 2012 southwest into the Moscow Oblast, the area of the capital more than doubled, going from 1,091 to 2,511 square kilometers (421 to 970 sq mi), resulting in Moscow becoming the largest city on the European continent by area; it also gained an additional population of 233,000 people.[14][15]
Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia, making it Europe's most populated inland city. The city is well known for its architecture, particularly its historic buildings such as Saint Basil's Cathedral with its colourful architectural style. With over 40 percent of its territory covered by greenery, it is one of the greenest capitals and major cities in Europe and the world, having the largest forest in an urban area within its borders—more than any other major city—even before its expansion in 2012. The city has served as the capital of a progression of states, from the medieval Grand Duchy of Moscow and the subsequent Tsardom of Russia to the Russian Empire to the Soviet Union and the contemporary Russian Federation.
Moscow is the seat of power of the Government of Russia, being the site of the Moscow Kremlin, a medieval city-fortress that is today the residence for work of the President of Russia. The Moscow Kremlin and Red Square are also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament (the State Duma and the Federation Council) also sit in the city. Moscow is considered the centre of Russian culture, having served as the home of Russian artists, scientists and sports figures and because of the presence of museums, academic and political institutions and theatres.
The city is served by a transit network, which includes four international airports,[16] nine railway terminals, numerous trams, a monorail system and one of the deepest underground rapid transit systems in the world, the Moscow Metro, the fourth-largest in the world and largest outside Asia in terms of passenger numbers, and the busiest in Europe. It is recognised as one of the city's landmarks due to the rich architecture of its 200 stations.[citation needed]
Moscow has acquired a number of epithets, most referring to its size and preeminent status within the nation: The Third Rome (Третий Рим), The Whitestone One (Белокаменная), The First Throne (Первопрестольная), The Forty Forties (Сорок Сороков) (The Forty Soroks, "sorok" translates as forty, but here it is old name of district or parish, and "forty" in old Russian means not 40, but "great many"). Moscow is one of the twelve Hero Cities. In old Russian the word "Сорок" (forty) also meant a church administrative district, which consisted of about forty churches. The demonym for a Moscow resident is "москвич" (moskvich) for male or "москвичка" (moskvichka) for female, rendered in English as Muscovite.
Russia (Russian: Росси́я, tr. Rossiya, IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə]), officially the Russian Federation[12] (Russian: Росси́йская Федера́ция, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya, IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə]), is a country in Eurasia.[13] At 17,125,200 square kilometres (6,612,100 sq mi),[14] Russia is the largest country in the world by area, covering more than one-eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area,[15][16][17] and the ninth most populous, with over 144 million people as of December 2017, excluding Crimea.[8] About 77% of the population live in the western, European part of the country. Russia's capital, Moscow, is the largest metropolitan area in Europe proper[18] and one of the largest cities in the world; other major cities include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg and Nizhny Novgorod.
Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a wide range of environments and landforms. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares land borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both with Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia and North Korea. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk and the U.S. state of Alaska across the Bering Strait.
The East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD.[19] Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, the medieval state of Rus arose in the 9th century. In 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire,[20] beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium.[20] Rus' ultimately disintegrated into a number of smaller states; most of the Rus' lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion and became tributaries of the nomadic Golden Horde in the 13th century.[21] The Grand Duchy of Moscow gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities, achieved independence from the Golden Horde. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation, and exploration to become the Russian Empire, which was the third largest empire in history, stretching from Poland on the west to Alaska on the east.[22][23]
Following the Russian Revolution, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic became the largest and leading constituent of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the world's first constitutionally socialist state.[24] The Soviet Union played a decisive role in the Allied victory in World War II,[25][26] and emerged as a recognized superpower and rival to the United States during the Cold War. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the world's first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the world's second largest economy, largest standing military in the world and the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction.[27][28][29] Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, twelve independent republics emerged from the USSR: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and the Baltic states regained independence: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania; the Russian SFSR reconstituted itself as the Russian Federation and is recognized as the continuing legal personality and a successor of the Soviet Union.[30] It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic.
Russia's economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015.[31] Russia's extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world,[32] making it one of the leading producers of oil and natural gas globally.[33][34] The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction.[35] Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and an active global partner of ASEAN,[36][37][38] as well as a member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), the G20, the Council of Europe, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), and the World Trade Organization (WTO), as well as being the leading member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) and one of the five members of the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU), along with Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.
La
photo-carte de visite est un format de
photographie d´une personne qui apparaît en
1854 en France et qui rencontre un succès massif jusqu´aux premières années du
XXe siècle.
C´est l´évolution des techniques de photographie qui permet l´apparition de la photo-carte de visite. Le processus du négatif sur plaque de verre au collodion humide avec un report sur papier albuminé inventé par Louis Désiré Blanquart-Evrard en 1850 supplante le daguerréotype, il est plus souple et plus économique. Louis Dodéro, est le premier qui produit à Marseille des portraits photographiques au format dit carte-de-visite1, mais c´est André Adolphe Eugène Disdéri, un photographe parisien, qui dépose en 1854 un brevet permettant la réalisation de huit clichés sur la même plaque de verre.
Les petites photos, au format 5,2 cm sur 8,7 cm, sont ensuite collées sur un carton qui adopte le format d´une carte de visite, 6,2 cm sur 10,3 cm. Le nom du photographe apparaît imprimé sous la photo. Les dos, d´abord vierges, sont ensuite utilisés pour la publicité du studio. Une vingtaine de cartonniers en France fournissent les photographes en cartons imprimés2, souvent très décorés, faisant mention de médailles reçues, de recommandations officielles.
Disdéri popularise intelligemment son procédé, utilisant la caution de personnalités qu´il a photographiées, notamment l´empereur Napoléon III. Très vite le phénomène se développe, d´abord dans les milieux bourgeois, puis dans toutes les familles voulant acquérir une certaine reconnaissance sociale. D´autres photographes adoptent le format et l´engouement est tel que la production de photos-cartes de visite atteint des volumes industriels. Dans les années 1860, des centaines d´ateliers photographiques s´ouvrent à Paris et dans les grandes villes de province, l'essor de la photo-carte de visite est une des principales raisons de ce développement fulgurant des ateliers de photographes, en France et à l´étranger.
En 1872, il sort des ateliers de Disderi 2 400 photos-cartes par jour. Une base de données, réalisée par François Boisjoly propose plus de 22 000 photographies et présente plus de 16 000 noms et adresses d´hommes ayant vécu pour et par la photographie à cette époque3.
The carte de visite[1] (abbreviated CdV or CDV, and also spelled carte-de-visite or erroneously referred to as carte de ville) was a type of small photograph which was patented in Paris, France by photographer André Adolphe Eugène Disdéri in 1854, although first used by Louis Dodero.[2][3] It was usually made of an albumen print, which was a thin paper photograph mounted on a thicker paper card. The size of a carte de visite is 54.0 mm (2.125 in) × 89 mm (3.5 in) mounted on a card sized 64 mm (2.5 in) × 100 mm (4 in). In 1854, Disdéri had also patented a method of taking eight separate negatives on a single plate, which reduced production costs. The Carte de Visite was slow to gain widespread use until 1859, when Disdéri published Emperor Napoleon III´s photos in this format.[4] This made the format an overnight success. The new invention was so popular it was known as "cardomania"[5] and it spread throughout Europe and then quickly to America and the rest of the world.
Each photograph was the size of a visiting card, and such photograph cards were traded among friends and visitors. Albums for the collection and display of cards became a common fixture in Victorian parlors. The immense popularity of these card photographs led to the publication and collection of photographs of prominent persons.
By the early 1870s, cartes de visite were supplanted by "cabinet cards," which were also usually albumen prints, but larger, mounted on cardboard backs measuring 110 mm (4.5 in) by 170 mm (6.5 in). Cabinet cards remained popular into the early 20th century, when Kodak introduced the Brownie camera and home snapshot photography became a mass phenomenon.
De carte de visite is een type foto, die vooral in de 19e eeuw werd gebruikt.
De Fransman André Disdéri verkreeg in 1854 het patent voor de carte de visite. Cartes de visite waren een soort kartonnen visitekaartjes, waarop een albuminen foto, meestal een portret, werd afgedrukt. Ze hebben een grootte van ca. 6 x 8,5 centimeter. Ze waren vooral bestemd voor privégebruik, al werden er ook cartes de visite verkocht van het koninklijk huis en is van de Amerikaanse Sojourner Truth bekend dat zij de kaartjes verkocht om geld in te zamelen.
Een bekend Nederlands carte de visite-fotograaf was Israël Kiek, aan wie we het begrip Kiekje danken. Tegen de Eerste Wereldoorlog liep de vraag naar cartes de visite terug, onder andere door de toenemende concurrentie en de opkomst van andere vormen van fotografie.
